The ICEH Repository brings together a wide range of health-related indicators derived from population-representative household surveys, with a particular focus on monitoring health inequalities within and across countries. These indicators are organized into thematic groups that reflect major areas of global health, such as immunization, reproductive and maternal health, infant and young child feeding, nutrition, water and sanitation, gender, mortality, and fertility.
This page provides an overview of the main groups of indicators available in the ICEH Repository, highlighting the types of health practices, outcomes, and services captured within each theme. Rather than listing individual indicators, the descriptions contextualize each group by outlining its relevance for population health and equity analyses, the key dimensions typically examined, and the policy questions that these indicators are commonly used to address.
All indicators described on this page are available through the ICEH Retriever, where users can access ready-to-use, equity-disaggregated estimates across countries, survey years, and population subgroups. By presenting the indicator groups in a single, structured entry point, this page is intended to help users quickly identify whether data relevant to their research or policy needs are available, and to guide them efficiently toward detailed, comparable estimates within the ICEH analytical platform. Please note that the complete definitions, including numerator, denominator, stratifications, availability and more, are available in the indicator definions spreadsheet.
Sexual and reproductive health indicators capture women’s access to family planning services and their ability to exercise reproductive autonomy. These measures reflect both current contraceptive behavior and the extent to which health systems are able to respond to women’s reproductive intentions. Together, they provide essential insight into reproductive rights, service coverage, and equity in access to care.
Indicators of contraceptive use are calculated for married or partnered women as well as for all sexually active women, regardless of marital status. They measure the prevalence of current contraceptive use, distinguishing between any method and modern methods. In addition, method mix indicators describe the distribution of modern contraceptive methods—short-acting reversible methods, long-acting reversible methods, and permanent methods—providing insight into the range of options available and the balance of family planning programs. Monitoring method mix helps identify potential gaps in choice, access, and quality of services.
Demand-related indicators assess the proportion of women who wish to delay or avoid pregnancy and therefore have a need for family planning services. Complementary measures estimate the extent to which this demand is satisfied, using definitions that account for marital status, sexual activity, and method type, as well as both original and revised definitions of unmet need. Together, these indicators provide a comprehensive view of reproductive intentions and the responsiveness of health systems in meeting those needs.
Antenatal care (ANC) is a cornerstone of maternal and newborn health, enabling the prevention, early detection, and management of pregnancy-related complications. The ICEH Repository monitors coverage of key ANC indicators capturing early access, frequency of contact, and essential service components received during pregnancy. Indicators are calculated for women aged 15–49 years with a live birth in the reference period (typically the last two years, depending on the survey).
Early initiation of ANC is critical for identifying maternal conditions such as anemia, hypertension, infections, and other complications that may affect pregnancy outcomes. A key indicator therefore measures the proportion of women whose first ANC contact occurred during the first trimester (before 12 weeks of gestation).
Continuity of care throughout pregnancy is assessed using contact-based indicators aligned with evolving global recommendations. ICEH monitors:
These indicators reflect both initial access to services and sustained engagement with the health system during pregnancy.
Beyond the number of visits, the quality and content of care are essential. Effective ANC includes preventive, diagnostic, and counseling interventions designed to safeguard maternal and fetal health.
To capture this dimension, ICEH monitors the proportion of women who report receiving key services during pregnancy, including blood pressure measurement, blood testing, urine testing, and tetanus toxoid–containing vaccination. These components are critical for detecting hypertensive disorders, anemia, infections, and other preventable causes of maternal and neonatal morbidity.
A composite indicator is also used to identify women who received a minimum recommended package of ANC interventions, providing a more comprehensive assessment than contact measures alone.
The content-qualified antenatal care coverage indicator (ANCq) combines measures of service contact and care content into a single score reflecting the adequacy of care received. Unlike most contact-based indicators, ANCq includes all women in need of ANC, including those with no visits.
The score ranges from 0 to 10 points and is based on seven components: first visit in the first trimester (1 point), at least one visit with a skilled provider (2 points), number of visits (1–3 visits = 1 point; 4–7 visits = 2 points; 8 or more visits = 3 points), blood pressure measurement (1 point), blood sample collection (1 point), urine sample collection (1 point), and receipt of at least two tetanus toxoid doses (1 point).
By integrating both contact and content, ANCq provides a multidimensional measure of service adequacy and allows more nuanced assessment of inequalities in maternal health care utilization.
Together, these indicators provide a comprehensive view of antenatal care coverage, capturing early access, continuity of care, and the quality of services received. This framework supports monitoring of maternal health system performance and identification of persistent equity gaps.
These indicators capture essential elements of care during childbirth and the immediate postnatal period, reflecting access to skilled providers, facility-based delivery services, obstetric practices, and early postnatal follow-up. Together, they describe critical points along the maternal and newborn care continuum and are central to strategies aimed at reducing maternal and neonatal mortality.
Indicators are calculated for live births to women aged 15–49 years, typically referring to the most recent birth within the two years preceding the survey.
Skilled birth attendance is a core component of safe motherhood and effective maternal and newborn care. This indicator measures the proportion of live births delivered by a skilled birth attendant, defined according to country-specific DHS and MICS classifications as trained health professionals such as doctors, nurses, and midwives. Traditional birth attendants are excluded.
Skilled attendance reflects access to qualified personnel capable of preventing, detecting, and managing obstetric and neonatal complications at the time of delivery.
Place of delivery indicators describe where childbirth occurred and assess reliance on institutional versus non-institutional care. These measures reflect structural, geographic, socioeconomic, and cultural determinants influencing childbirth location.
ICEH monitors:
These indicators provide insight into access to organized delivery care and emergency obstetric services.
Mode of delivery indicators focus on caesarean section use as a marker of access to and patterns of obstetric care.
These measures help identify both underuse and overuse of surgical delivery and highlight differences in obstetric practices across health system sectors.
The postnatal period is one of the highest-risk phases for both mothers and newborns. Early postnatal care is essential for detecting and managing complications such as infections, hemorrhage, and feeding difficulties.
Together, these indicators provide a comprehensive view of childbirth care and early postnatal services, capturing skilled attendance, institutional access, obstetric practices, and immediate follow-up. Monitoring these dimensions supports evaluation of maternal and newborn health system performance and identification of persistent equity gaps in access to lifesaving care.
Infant and young child feeding (IYCF) practices during the first two years of life are critical for child survival, growth, and development. Breastfeeding plays a central role in this period, contributing to protection against infectious diseases, optimal nutrition, and healthy cognitive development. Early initiation of breastfeeding and sustained breastfeeding throughout infancy and early childhood are widely recognized as key public health priorities and are reflected in global recommendations for maternal and child health.
Indicators in this group capture multiple dimensions of feeding practices across early life, including the timing of breastfeeding initiation, the continuation of breastfeeding into the second year of life, and patterns of feeding during the first six months, such as exclusive, predominant, or partial breastfeeding. The use of breast milk substitutes is also monitored, as it provides important insight into feeding transitions and potential deviations from recommended practices during infancy.
Universal childhood immunization is one of the most effective public health interventions for reducing infant and child morbidity and mortality. Vaccination indicators in the ICEH Repository monitor coverage of core antigens included in routine immunization schedules, as well as gaps in access reflected by zero-dose and non-vaccination measures.
Coverage is assessed for the basic vaccine series, including BCG, DTP-containing vaccines (diphtheria–tetanus–pertussis), polio, measles-containing vaccines, and rotavirus. These vaccines are typically administered from birth through the first year of life according to national immunization schedules.
Indicators are calculated for age groups that reflect recommended timing of doses. Coverage for most primary series vaccines is assessed among children aged 12–23 months. Where the first dose of measles-containing vaccine is scheduled at 12 months, alternative age windows are used to ensure adequate exposure time before evaluation. Coverage of the second measles-containing dose is generally assessed among children aged 24–35 months.
A child is considered fully vaccinated with basic antigens if they have received BCG, three doses of a DTP-containing vaccine, three doses of polio vaccine (excluding any birth dose), and at least one dose of a measles-containing vaccine. This composite indicator reflects completion of the foundational immunization schedule in early life.
In addition to measuring coverage, vaccination indicators capture gaps in immunization.
The “no vaccination” indicator identifies children who have not received any of the core childhood vaccines. The zero-dose indicator measures the proportion of children who did not receive even the first dose of a DTP-containing vaccine. Because the first DTP dose is delivered through routine primary health services, zero-dose status serves as a key proxy for missed contact with the health system and is widely used to identify populations facing structural barriers to care.
Monitoring both full immunization and zero-dose prevalence allows assessment of overall program performance, identification of inequities, and targeting of underserved populations.
Pneumonia, diarrhea, and malaria-related febrile illness remain leading causes of morbidity and mortality among children under five. Reducing preventable child deaths requires timely care-seeking and appropriate case management. This group of indicators monitors whether caregivers sought advice or treatment for children who experienced symptoms of illness in the two weeks preceding the survey, as well as whether essential recommended treatments were received.
Indicators are calculated for children aged 0–59 months.
Diarrheal disease is a major cause of preventable child mortality. Indicators assess both care-seeking behavior and adherence to recommended treatment protocols.
Together, these indicators capture both access to care and quality of home and facility-based case management.
Acute respiratory infections, including pneumonia, are major contributors to under-five mortality. Indicators monitor care-seeking and treatment practices among children who exhibited ARI symptoms in the two weeks before the survey.
These measures reflect access to formal healthcare services and the appropriateness of clinical management, while also allowing examination of potential underuse or misuse of antibiotics.
Fever is a common symptom of potentially serious infections, including malaria in endemic settings. The fever care-seeking indicator measures the proportion of children who had fever in the two weeks preceding the survey and for whom advice or treatment was sought from an appropriate provider.
Because fever is often the initial manifestation of severe infectious disease, this indicator provides insight into caregivers’ responsiveness to illness and the reach of primary healthcare services.
Together, these child illness indicators provide a comprehensive view of healthcare-seeking behavior and treatment coverage for common childhood conditions. Monitoring both access to care and receipt of recommended therapies supports evaluation of health system responsiveness and identification of persistent inequities in child survival interventions.
During early childhood, nutritional requirements increase rapidly, and from around six months of age infants require foods in addition to breast milk to meet their energy and nutrient needs. While continued breastfeeding through the second year of life remains important, the quality, diversity, and frequency of complementary foods play a central role in supporting healthy growth, preventing undernutrition, and reducing the risk of micronutrient deficiencies.
Indicators in this group focus on complementary feeding practices among infants and young children aged 6–23 months, capturing key aspects of diet quality and adequacy. These include measures of dietary diversity, meal frequency, and minimum acceptable diet, as well as consumption of nutrient-dense foods such as eggs and flesh foods. The indicators also assess exposure to inadequate diets and food poverty, providing insight into both feeding behaviors and access to sufficient and diverse foods during a critical developmental period.
Indicators describing the growth and nutritional status of children and women of reproductive age provide a comprehensive picture of population nutrition and health. Measures of child growth capture both acute and chronic forms of undernutrition, as well as emerging patterns of overweight, while indicators among women reflect nutritional risks before, during, and after pregnancy. Together, these outcomes summarize the cumulative effects of dietary intake, disease exposure, and living conditions across the life course.
This group includes anthropometric indicators derived from height, weight, age, and body mass index, expressed as prevalences and mean z-score distributions. Among children, these measures capture patterns of stunting, wasting, underweight, and overweight, as well as related indicators such as low birth weight and recent vitamin A supplementation. Among adults, the indicators describe nutritional status among women of reproductive age and pregnant women, including anemia, underweight, and obesity, as well as underweight, overweight, and obesity among men and short stature among women.
Early childhood development (ECD) is a foundational determinant of human capital, shaping lifelong trajectories in health, learning, and well-being. To monitor developmental progress and inequalities, the ICEH Repository tracks standardized child development indicators based on both the original Early Childhood Development Index (ECDI 2009) and the revised ECDI 2030 framework aligned with SDG indicator 4.2.1.
Indicators are calculated for young children living with their mother, within age ranges defined by each index.
The original ECDI, introduced in 2009, provides a population-level measure of developmental progress among children aged 36–59 months. It assesses four core domains:
The index consists of 10 caregiver-reported items used to determine whether a child is developmentally on track within each domain. A child is classified as developmentally on track overall if they meet established criteria in at least three of the four domains.
ECDI 2009 produces both domain-specific estimates and an overall measure, allowing examination of specific areas of developmental vulnerability as well as aggregate developmental status.
With the adoption of the Sustainable Development Goals, ECD was incorporated into global monitoring under SDG indicator 4.2.1: “Proportion of children aged 24–59 months who are developmentally on track in health, learning, and psychosocial well-being.”
To align measurement with this broader conceptual framework, the Early Childhood Development Index 2030 (ECDI 2030) was developed through an international technical process led by UNICEF and formally adopted by the United Nations Statistical Commission in 2021.
ECDI 2030 expands the target age range to 24–59 months and generates a single summary measure of the proportion of children who are developmentally on track. The instrument includes 20 items grouped into three domains:
Unlike the earlier version, ECDI 2030 emphasizes a unified, SDG-aligned measure of developmental status, reflecting the integrated and multidimensional nature of early childhood development.
Together, ECDI 2009 and ECDI 2030 allow both historical comparability and alignment with the global SDG monitoring framework. These indicators support the assessment of developmental inequalities across and within countries and provide critical evidence for policies aimed at improving early learning environments, caregiving practices, and child well-being.
Malaria indicators capture key dimensions of prevention, diagnosis, and case management, providing insight into population exposure to vector control measures, access to diagnostic services, and timely treatment. Together, these measures reflect the effectiveness of malaria control programs and the performance of health systems in reducing malaria-related morbidity and mortality, particularly among pregnant women and young children.
Prevention indicators focus on coverage and use of proven interventions designed to reduce transmission and protect high-risk groups.
Intermittent preventive treatment in pregnancy (IPTp) measures the proportion of women who received at least two or three doses of IPTp during pregnancy. Two versions of each indicator are produced: an unrestricted measure that includes all women who received the required number of doses, regardless of delivery site, and an antenatal care–restricted measure that includes only those who received the required doses and at least one dose during an antenatal care visit. Distinguishing between these indicators allows assessment of both overall IPTp coverage and the effectiveness of antenatal care services in delivering malaria prevention. IPTp is critical for preventing maternal anemia, placental infection, low birth weight, and other adverse pregnancy outcomes.
Vector control is assessed through household ownership and individual use of insecticide-treated nets that do not require any further treatment (ITNs). Household ownership of at least one ITN reflects access to a primary malaria prevention tool. Complementary indicators measure the proportion of children under 5 and pregnant women who slept under an ITN the night before the survey, capturing effective utilization among biologically vulnerable groups.
Diagnostic indicator measure the proportion of children under 5 with fever for whom a blood sample was taken for malaria testing. This indicator reflects adherence to diagnostic guidelines and the availability of testing services, both of which are essential to avoid over-treatment and ensure appropriate case management.
Treatment indicators assess the extent to which children with suspected malaria receive timely and appropriate therapy. Measures include the proportion who received artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT)—the recommended first-line treatment for uncomplicated malaria—on the same or next day after fever onset. An additional indicator captures receipt of any anti-malarial medication within this timeframe, providing insight into treatment coverage even where recommended regimens may not have been used.
Gender-related indicators in the ICEH Repository capture key dimensions of the social, personal, and physical agency of women and girls, as well as their exposure to harmful practices and violence. Together, these indicators provide critical insight into how gender norms, power relations, and social constraints shape health, well-being, and life opportunities across the life course.
Women’s empowerment is a central driver of population health and social development, with well-documented links to improved maternal and child outcomes, educational attainment, and economic participation. Indicators of women’s empowerment in the ICEH Repository are based on the SWPER Global index, a validated, survey-based measure that assesses empowerment among married or partnered women aged 15–49 years across three domains: attitudes toward violence, decision-making, and social independence. Using standardized continuous scores, women are classified into low, medium, or high levels of empowerment within each domain, enabling comparable analyses across countries and over time. Additional information on the SWPER Global index is available here.
Harmful practices reflect deeply rooted gender norms and social inequalities that have lasting physical, psychological, and reproductive health consequences. Indicators in this group capture the prevalence of female genital mutilation or cutting and early marriage. Measures of female genital mutilation or cutting describe both the overall prevalence among women aged 15–49 years and the occurrence of more severe forms of the practice, such as infibulation or those with flesh removal. Indicators of early marriage assess the proportion of women aged 20–24 years who were first married before ages 15 or 18, highlighting persistent risks to girls’ education, autonomy, and long-term well-being.
Gender-based violence indicators document experiences of violence that represent serious violations of human rights and major public health concerns. Intimate partner violence indicators measure the proportion of women aged 15–49 years who experienced physical, sexual, or psychological violence from a current or former partner in the past 12 months, including combined measures of physical or sexual violence or any form of violence. Complementary indicators capture lifetime experiences of sexual violence among both women and men, recognizing that while women are disproportionately affected, sexual violence against men also represents an important and often underreported dimension of gender-related vulnerability.
Certain patterns of individual behavior substantially increase the risk of noncommunicable diseases and other adverse health outcomes. Among the most significant and preventable of these risk factors is tobacco use, which contributes to cardiovascular diseases, cancers, chronic respiratory conditions, and a range of reproductive and maternal health complications. As a modifiable exposure with well-established health consequences, tobacco consumption remains a central focus of global public health efforts.
Indicators in this group measure the prevalence of current tobacco use among adult men and women, providing population-level estimates of exposure to this major behavioral risk factor. By capturing sex-specific patterns of tobacco consumption, these measures support the assessment of gender differences in risk profiles and the monitoring of trends over time.
Household environmental conditions play a central role in shaping health risks, infectious disease transmission, and overall well-being. Indicators in this group capture access to safe water, adequate sanitation, hand hygiene facilities, and clean household cooking energy—core determinants of child survival, nutritional outcomes, and protection against communicable diseases. Together, these measures reflect both structural service access and the enabling environment for healthy living.
Access to safe and sufficient water is fundamental for health, nutrition, and hygiene. Water-related indicators assess both structural access to safe drinking water sources and household-level practices aimed at reducing contamination risks. These include access to an improved source of drinking water, defined as sources designed to protect against contamination (such as piped water, boreholes, protected wells, or delivered water), as well as access to piped water directly into the dwelling, yard, or plot, which typically reflects a higher level of service, convenience, and reliability. Indicators also capture the use of appropriate household water treatment methods (e.g., ceramic, sand, or other filters), providing insight into protective behaviors that help reduce exposure to waterborne diseases.
Adequate sanitation is essential for preventing fecal–oral disease transmission and promoting dignity and safety. Sanitation indicators measure access to basic sanitation facilities that hygienically separate human excreta from contact, including flush or pour-flush toilets connected to sewer systems or septic tanks and improved latrines. Complementary measures assess the safe disposal of children’s stools, an important but often overlooked pathway of household-level contamination. Together, these indicators provide a broader picture of sanitation access and hygienic practices within the home environment.
Hygiene indicators focus primarily on handwashing facilities, measuring the proportion of the population or households with a designated place for handwashing that has both water and soap (or other cleansing agents) available at the time of the survey. These measures reflect the enabling conditions for proper hand hygiene, a key intervention for preventing diarrheal diseases, respiratory infections, and other communicable conditions.
Exposure to household air pollution from solid fuels such as wood, charcoal, or dung is a major risk factor for respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, particularly among women and young children. Indicators of clean cooking measure the proportion of households using cleaner fuels and technologies—such as electricity, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), natural gas, biogas, solar power, or alcohol—that substantially reduce indoor air pollution. These measures provide insight into environmental health risks within households and broader transitions in energy access.
Demographic indicators provide essential context for understanding population structure, service needs, and social protection systems. They capture key characteristics related to civil registration and fertility-related population composition, both of which are fundamental for monitoring equity, planning health and social services, and ensuring legal identity and rights across the life course.
Birth registration indicators measure the proportion of children under five whose births have been officially recorded by civil authorities, as well as the proportion who possess a birth certificate as documentary proof of registration. While registration reflects official recording of a birth, certification refers specifically to the availability of a formal document confirming that registration. Together, these indicators provide insight into the coverage of civil registration systems and the extent to which children are legally recognized. Ensuring birth registration and certification is critical for establishing legal identity, protecting rights, verifying age, and facilitating access to health care, education, and social services.
Fertility-related demographic indicators describe the reproductive composition of the female population and help contextualize demand for maternal, newborn, and reproductive health services. Measures include the proportion of women of reproductive age who are pregnant at the time of the survey, reflecting current reproductive dynamics and potential immediate need for maternal health services. Indicators of marital or union status among women aged 15–49 provide additional context for fertility patterns, contraceptive use, and service needs, as marriage or partnership is closely associated with childbearing in many settings.
Fertility indicators describe patterns of childbearing within a population and provide essential inputs for demographic projections, social planning, and the assessment of women’s reproductive health and autonomy. These measures inform projections of population growth, guide investments in education and health services, and reflect broader social and economic conditions.
Two foundational indicators capture overall fertility levels. The crude birth rate (CBR) measures the number of live births per 1,000 population in a given year, providing a broad population-level measure. The total fertility rate (TFR) represents the average number of children a woman would have over her lifetime based on current age-specific fertility rates, offering a more refined and age-standardized summary of fertility patterns.
Adolescent fertility highlights the timing of childbearing and its implications for health and social outcomes. The age-specific fertility rate for women aged 15–19 measures the number of births per 1,000 women in this age group. Early childbearing is closely linked to maternal and neonatal health risks, school discontinuation, and intergenerational poverty. Monitoring adolescent fertility provides insight into access to education, reproductive health services, and broader gender inequalities.
All fertility indicators in the ICEH Repository are estimated as births per 1,000 woman-years of exposure for the 3- and 5-year periods preceding the survey, balancing temporal relevance with sufficient sample size for stable estimation and equity disaggregation.
Mortality indicators provide fundamental information on population health and reflect the combined influence of social, economic, environmental, and health system conditions. Early-life mortality measures are particularly sensitive to inequalities in access to care, nutrition, and living conditions, making them essential for monitoring health system performance and social development.
Mortality in the first year of life is highly sensitive to the quality of care during pregnancy, delivery, and the immediate postnatal period. The neonatal mortality rate measures the probability of dying within the first month of life, while the post-neonatal mortality rate captures deaths occurring from one month to under one year of age.
Distinguishing between these periods is critical. Neonatal deaths are often associated with prematurity, birth complications, congenital anomalies, and the quality of obstetric and immediate newborn care. Post-neonatal deaths more commonly reflect infectious diseases, nutrition, environmental exposures, and access to preventive and curative services. Analyzing these components separately supports more targeted maternal and child health strategies.
Beyond the neonatal period, mortality indicators capture age-specific risks across early childhood. The infant mortality rate measures the probability of dying before the first birthday and serves as a widely used indicator of population health and development. The child mortality rate captures the risk of dying between ages one and four, reflecting continued vulnerability to infectious diseases, malnutrition, and injuries. The under-five mortality rate provides a cumulative measure of the probability of dying before age five and remains a central benchmark for monitoring progress toward national and global health targets.
Together, these indicators offer a comprehensive view of survival patterns across early childhood and help identify the ages at which mortality reductions are lagging.
All mortality rates in the ICEH Repository are estimated as deaths per 1,000 live births for the 10-year period preceding the survey. Using a 10-year reference period increases the number of observed births and deaths, improving the precision of estimates and allowing more reliable equity disaggregation across population subgroups.